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Which Of The Following Events May Introduce Changes In Behavior That Can Be Attributed To Learning?

Written By Wednesday, March 23, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Process of acquiring new knowledge

Children learning in a rural schoolhouse in Bangladesh

Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences.[one] The ability to acquire is possessed by humans, animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants.[ii] Some learning is immediate, induced by a unmarried effect (due east.g. being burned by a hot stove), but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences.[3] The changes induced by learning often terminal a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned fabric that seems to be "lost" from that which cannot be retrieved.[four]

Human learning starts at nascency (it might even first before[5] in terms of an embryo's need for both interaction with, and freedom within its environment within the womb.[half-dozen]) and continues until death as a consequence of ongoing interactions betwixt people and their environment. The nature and processes involved in learning are studied in many established fields (including educational psychology, neuropsychology, experimental psychology, cognitive sciences, and pedagogy), likewise as emerging fields of knowledge (eastward.g. with a shared interest in the topic of learning from safety events such as incidents/accidents,[7] or in collaborative learning health systems[8]). Enquiry in such fields has led to the identification of various sorts of learning. For instance, learning may occur as a result of habituation, or classical conditioning, operant conditioning or as a result of more complex activities such equally play, seen just in relatively intelligent animals.[9] [x] Learning may occur consciously or without witting awareness. Learning that an aversive event can't be avoided or escaped may outcome in a condition called learned helplessness.[xi] There is testify for human behavioral learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the cardinal nervous organisation is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early in development.[12]

Play has been approached by several theorists as a grade of learning. Children experiment with the world, learn the rules, and learn to collaborate through play. Lev Vygotsky agrees that play is pivotal for children's development, since they make meaning of their environment through playing educational games. For Vygotsky, however, play is the beginning grade of learning language and communication, and the stage where a kid begins to sympathize rules and symbols.[thirteen] This has led to a view that learning in organisms is always related to semiosis,[14] and often associated with representational systems/action.

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Types [edit]

Non-associative learning [edit]

Non-associative learning refers to "a relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a unmarried stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus."[16] This definition exempt the changes caused past sensory adaptation, fatigue, or injury.[17]

Non-associative learning tin be divided into habituation and sensitization.

Habituation [edit]

Habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which one or more components of an innate response (e.k., response probability, response duration) to a stimulus diminishes when the stimulus is repeated. Thus, habituation must exist distinguished from extinction, which is an associative procedure. In operant extinction, for example, a response declines because it is no longer followed past a reward. An example of habituation can be seen in small vocal birds—if a blimp owl (or similar predator) is put into the muzzle, the birds initially react to information technology as though it were a existent predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same ane removed and re-introduced), the birds react to information technology again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that information technology is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in ane place). The habituation process is faster for stimuli that occur at a high rather than for stimuli that occur at a low rate as well as for the weak and potent stimuli, respectively.[18] Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, also as the sensitive constitute Mimosa pudica [19] and the large protozoan Stentor coeruleus.[20] This concept acts in direct opposition to sensitization.[18]

Sensitization [edit]

Sensitization is an instance of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus.[21] This is based on the notion that a defensive reflex to a stimulus such as withdrawal or escape becomes stronger afterwards the exposure to a dissimilar harmful or threatening stimulus.[22] An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that occurs if a person rubs their arm continuously. Afterwards a while, this stimulation creates a warm sensation that tin eventually turn painful. This pain results from a progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral fretfulness. This sends a warning that the stimulation is harmful.[23] [ description needed ] Sensitization is idea to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.[24] [ citation needed ]

Active learning [edit]

Active learning occurs when a person takes control of his/her learning feel. Since agreement information is the key aspect of learning, information technology is important for learners to recognize what they understand and what they practice not. By doing then, they can monitor their ain mastery of subjects. Active learning encourages learners to accept an internal dialogue in which they verbalize understandings. This and other meta-cognitive strategies tin can exist taught to a child over fourth dimension. Studies inside metacognition take proven the value in active learning, claiming that the learning is commonly at a stronger level equally a result.[25] In improver, learners have more incentive to learn when they accept command over not simply how they learn only also what they learn.[26] Active learning is a key characteristic of student-centered learning. Conversely, passive learning and direct didactics are characteristics of teacher-centered learning (or traditional instruction).

Associative learning [edit]

Associative learning is the procedure by which a person or brute learns an association between ii stimuli or events.[27] In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a reflex-eliciting stimulus until eventually the neutral stimulus elicits a response on its own. In operant conditioning, a behavior that is reinforced or punished in the presence of a stimulus becomes more or less probable to occur in the presence of that stimulus.

Operant conditioning [edit]

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement (by reward) or instead a punishment is given after a given beliefs, irresolute the frequency and/or grade of that behavior. Stimulus nowadays when the beliefs/result occurs come to control these behavior modifications.

Classical conditioning [edit]

The typical paradigm for classical workout involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes a reflexive response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke the response). Following workout, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a conditioned response. The classic example is Ivan Pavlov and his dogs.[22] Pavlov fed his dogs meat powder, which naturally fabricated the dogs salivate—salivating is a reflexive response to the meat pulverization. Meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus (Usa) and the salivation is the unconditioned response (UR). Pavlov rang a bong before presenting the meat pulverization. The kickoff time Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did non salivate, but once he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After numerous pairings of bell and food, the dogs learned that the bong signaled that nutrient was almost to come, and began to salivate when they heard the bell. Once this occurred, the bell became the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation to the bell became the conditioned response (CR). Classical workout has been demonstrated in many species. For example, it is seen in honeybees, in the proboscis extension reflex epitome.[28] It was recently too demonstrated in garden pea plants.[29]

Another influential person in the world of classical conditioning is John B. Watson. Watson's work was very influential and paved the mode for B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism. Watson'southward behaviorism (and philosophy of science) stood in direct contrast to Freud and other accounts based largely on introspection. Watson'due south view was that the introspective method was too subjective and that nosotros should limit the study of homo development to directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson published the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views," in which he argued that laboratory studies should serve psychology all-time as a scientific discipline. Watson's most famous, and controversial, experiment was "Piddling Albert", where he demonstrated how psychologists tin can account for the learning of emotion through classical workout principles.

Observational learning [edit]

Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. Information technology is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes. In humans, this form of learning seems to non need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social model such every bit a parent, sibling, friend, or instructor with surroundings.

Imprinting [edit]

Imprinting is a kind of learning occurring at a particular life stage that is rapid and manifestly contained of the consequences of beliefs. In filial imprinting, young animals, peculiarly birds, course an association with another individual or in some cases, an object, that they reply to as they would to a parent. In 1935, the Austrian Zoologist Konrad Lorenz discovered that certain birds follow and form a bond if the object makes sounds.

Play [edit]

Play mostly describes behavior with no particular end in itself, but that improves operation in like future situations. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates also humans, just is mostly limited to mammals and birds. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching casualty. Also inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their ain species or other animals, such equally orcas playing with seals they take caught. Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the risk of injury and possibly infection. It also consumes energy, and so there must be meaning benefits associated with play for it to take evolved. Play is more often than not seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. Even so, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example improving physical fitness.

Play, as it pertains to humans equally a class of learning is cardinal to a child's learning and development. Through play, children learn social skills such every bit sharing and collaboration. Children develop emotional skills such every bit learning to deal with the emotion of anger, through play activities. As a class of learning, play also facilitates the development of thinking and language skills in children.[30]

There are 5 types of play:

  1. Sensorimotor play aka functional play, characterized by the repetition of an activity
  2. Roleplay occurs starting at the age of 3
  3. Rule-based play where administrative prescribed codes of bear are principal
  4. Structure play involves experimentation and building
  5. Movement play aka concrete play[30]

These v types of play are often intersecting. All types of play generate thinking and problem-solving skills in children. Children learn to think creatively when they learn through play.[31] Specific activities involved in each type of play change over fourth dimension as humans progress through the lifespan. Play equally a form of learning, can occur solitarily, or involve interacting with others.

Enculturation [edit]

Enculturation is the procedure by which people learn values and behaviors that are appropriate or necessary in their surrounding culture.[32] Parents, other adults, and peers shape the individual's agreement of these values.[32] If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values, and rituals of the culture.[32] This is different from acculturation, where a person adopts the values and societal rules of a culture different from their native i.

Multiple examples of enculturation can be found cross-culturally. Collaborative practices in the Mazahua people have shown that participation in everyday interaction and later learning activities contributed to enculturation rooted in nonverbal social experience.[33] As the children participated in everyday activities, they learned the cultural significance of these interactions. The collaborative and helpful behaviors exhibited by Mexican and Mexican-heritage children is a cultural practice known as being "acomedido".[34] Chillihuani girls in Peru described themselves equally weaving constantly, following behavior shown by the other adults.[35]

Episodic learning [edit]

Episodic learning is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an outcome.[36] For example, a fright of dogs that follows being bitten by a dog is episodic learning. Episodic learning is so named because events are recorded into episodic retentivity, which is one of the three forms of explicit learning and retrieval, along with perceptual memory and semantic retention.[37] Episodic memory remembers events and history that are embedded in experience and this is distinguished from semantic retentiveness, which attempts to extract facts out of their experiential context[38] or – as some draw – a timeless organization of noesis.[39] For instance, if a person remembers the Grand Canyon from a recent visit, it is an episodic memory. He would utilize semantic memory to answer someone who would ask him information such as where the M Canyon is. A study revealed that humans are very accurate in the recognition of episodic retention even without deliberate intention to memorize it.[40] This is said to bespeak a very large storage capacity of the brain for things that people pay attention to.[40]

Multimedia learning [edit]

Multimedia learning is where a person uses both auditory and visual stimuli to acquire data (Mayer 2001) harv fault: no target: CITEREFMayer2001 (help). This type of learning relies on dual-coding theory (Paivio 1971) harv mistake: no target: CITEREFPaivio1971 (assistance).

East-learning and augmented learning [edit]

Electronic learning or east-learning is computer-enhanced learning. A specific and ever more diffused e-learning is mobile learning (m-learning), which uses different mobile telecommunication equipment, such as cellular phones.

When a learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it's chosen augmented learning. By adapting to the needs of individuals, the context-driven educational activity can be dynamically tailored to the learner's natural environment. Augmented digital content may include text, images, video, sound (music and voice). Past personalizing educational activity, augmented learning has been shown to improve learning functioning for a lifetime.[41] See likewise minimally invasive education.

Moore (1989)[42] purported that 3 core types of interaction are necessary for quality, constructive online learning:

  • Learner–learner (i.due east. communication between and amidst peers with or without the instructor present),
  • Learner–instructor (i.e. student-instructor communication), and
  • Learner–content (i.east. intellectually interacting with content that results in changes in learners' understanding, perceptions, and cognitive structures).

In his theory of transactional distance, Moore (1993)[43] contented that structure and interaction or dialogue bridge the gap in understanding and advice that is created past geographical distances (known as transactional distance).

Rote learning [edit]

Rote learning is memorizing information and so that it can exist recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major technique used for rote learning is learning by repetition, based on the idea that a learner can retrieve the material exactly (simply not its pregnant) if the information is repeatedly processed. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. Although it has been criticized past some educators, rote learning is a necessary precursor to meaningful learning.

Meaningful learning [edit]

Meaningful learning is the concept that learned knowledge (e.thousand., a fact) is fully understood to the extent that it relates to other knowledge. To this end, meaningful learning contrasts with rote learning in which information is acquired without regard to understanding. Meaningful learning, on the other hand, implies at that place is a comprehensive cognition of the context of the facts learned.[44]

Prove-based learning [edit]

Evidence-based learning is the use of testify from well designed scientific studies to accelerate learning. Prove-based learning methods such as spaced repetition can increment the charge per unit at which a student learns.[45]

Formal learning [edit]

Formal learning is learning that takes place within a instructor-student relationship, such equally in a schoolhouse arrangement. The term formal learning has nada to practice with the formality of the learning, but rather the style it is directed and organized. In formal learning, the learning or training departments set out the goals and objectives of the learning.[46]

Nonformal learning [edit]

Nonformal learning is organized learning outside the formal learning arrangement. For example, learning past coming together with people with like interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations, workshops.

Informal learning [edit]

Informal learning is less structured than "nonformal" 1. Information technology may occur through the experience of twenty-four hour period-to-twenty-four hour period situations (for example, one would learn to await ahead while walking because of the danger inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal at the table with parents, play, exploring, etc.

Nonformal learning and combined approaches [edit]

The educational arrangement may use a combination of formal, informal, and nonformal learning methods. The Un and EU recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some schools, students tin go points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get piece of work done in informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and training courses, on the condition they set up, contribute, share, and can bear witness this offered valuable new insight, helped to learn new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, teaching, etc.

To learn a skill, such as solving a Rubik'south Cube quickly, several factors come into play at once:

  • Reading directions helps a player acquire the patterns that solve the Rubik's Cube.
  • Practicing the moves repeatedly helps build "muscle memory" and speed.
  • Thinking critically most moves helps notice shortcuts, which speeds future attempts.
  • Observing the Rubik's Cube's six colors help anchor solutions in the mind.
  • Revisiting the cube occasionally helps retain the skill.

Tangential learning [edit]

Tangential learning is the process past which people self-educate if a topic is exposed to them in a context that they already enjoy. For instance, after playing a music-based video game, some people may be motivated to learn how to play a real instrument, or after watching a TV show that references Faust and Lovecraft, some people may exist inspired to read the original work.[47] Self-educational activity tin be improved with systematization. Co-ordinate to experts in natural learning, self-oriented learning training has proven an effective tool for profitable independent learners with the natural phases of learning.[48]

Extra Credits writer and game designer James Portnow was the beginning to advise games equally a potential venue for "tangential learning".[49] Mozelius et al. [50] points out that intrinsic integration of learning content seems to be a crucial design factor, and that games that include modules for further self-studies tend to present good results. The built-in encyclopedias in the Civilization games are presented as an case – past using these modules gamers tin dig deeper for cognition most historical events in the gameplay. The importance of rules that regulate learning modules and game experience is discussed by Moreno, C.,[51] in a example study about the mobile game Kiwaka. In this game, developed by Landka in collaboration with ESA and ESO, progress is rewarded with educational content, as opposed to traditional education games where learning activities are rewarded with gameplay.[52] [53]

Dialogic learning [edit]

Dialogic learning is a blazon of learning based on dialogue.

Incidental learning [edit]

In incidental teaching learning is non planned past the teacher or the pupil, it occurs equally a byproduct of another activeness — an experience, observation, self-reflection, interaction, unique event (e.m. in response to incidents/accidents), or common routine task. This learning happens in addition to or autonomously from the instructor'south plans and the student's expectations. An instance of incidental teaching is when the instructor places a train assault elevation of a cabinet. If the kid points or walks towards the cabinet, the teacher prompts the student to say "train." In one case the student says "train," he gets admission to the train set.

Here are some steps almost commonly used in incidental teaching:[54]

  • An teacher volition adapt the learning environs and so that necessary materials are within the student'due south sight, but not inside his reach, thus impacting his motivation to seek out those materials.
  • An instructor waits for the pupil to initiate engagement.
  • An instructor prompts the student to reply if needed.
  • An teacher allows access to an item/activity contingent on a correct response from the student.
  • The teacher fades out the prompting process over a catamenia of time and subsequent trials.

Incidental learning is an occurrence that is non by and large accounted for using the traditional methods of instructional objectives and outcomes assessment. This type of learning occurs in office as a product of social interaction and active involvement in both online and onsite courses. Inquiry implies that some un-assessed aspects of onsite and online learning challenge the equivalency of education betwixt the two modalities. Both onsite and online learning have distinct advantages with traditional on-campus students experiencing higher degrees of incidental learning in three times equally many areas as online students. Additional inquiry is called for to investigate the implications of these findings both conceptually and pedagogically.[55]

Domains [edit]

Hereafter school (1901 or 1910)

Benjamin Flower has suggested three domains of learning in his taxonomy which are:

  • Cognitive: To retrieve, calculate, talk over, analyze, problem solve, etc.
  • Psychomotor: To dance, swim, ski, dive, bulldoze a car, ride a bicycle, etc.
  • Affective: To like something or someone, love, appreciate, fearfulness, hate, worship, etc.

These domains are not mutually exclusive. For example, in learning to play chess, the person must learn the rules (cognitive domain)—but must likewise learn how to set up the chess pieces and how to properly concord and motion a chess piece (psychomotor). Furthermore, later in the game the person may fifty-fifty learn to beloved the game itself, value its applications in life, and appreciate its history (affective domain).[56]

Transfer [edit]

Transfer of learning is the application of skill, knowledge or agreement to resolve a novel problem or state of affairs that happens when sure weather condition are fulfilled. Research indicates that learning transfer is infrequent; about common when "... cued, primed, and guided..."[57] and has sought to clarify what it is, and how it might be promoted through instruction.

Over the history of its discourse, diverse hypotheses and definitions take been avant-garde. Commencement, it is speculated that different types of transfer exist, including: near transfer, the application of skill to solve a novel problem in a like context; and far transfer, the application of skill to solve a novel problem presented in a different context.[58] Furthermore, Perkins and Salomon (1992) advise that positive transfer in cases when learning supports novel problem solving, and negative transfer occurs when prior learning inhibits performance on highly correlated tasks, such as second or third-language learning.[59] Concepts of positive and negative transfer have a long history; researchers in the early 20th century described the possibility that "...habits or mental acts developed by a particular kind of grooming may inhibit rather than facilitate other mental activities".[60] Finally, Schwarz, Bransford and Sears (2005) have proposed that transferring knowledge into a state of affairs may differ from transferring knowledge out to a situation as a means to reconcile findings that transfer may both exist frequent and challenging to promote.[61]

A pregnant and long research history has likewise attempted to explain the conditions under which transfer of learning might occur. Early inquiry by Ruger, for case, found that the "level of attention", "attitudes", "method of attack" (or method for tackling a problem), a "search for new points of view", a "conscientious testing of hypothesis" and "generalization" were all valuable approaches for promoting transfer.[62] To encourage transfer through teaching, Perkins and Salomon recommend aligning ("hugging") pedagogy with exercise and assessment, and "bridging", or encouraging learners to reverberate on past experiences or make connections between prior knowledge and current content.[59]

Factors affecting learning [edit]

External factors [edit]

  1. Heredity: A classroom instructor can neither alter nor increase heredity, but the pupil can use and develop it. Some learners are rich in hereditary endowment while others are poor. Each pupil is unique and has dissimilar abilities. The native intelligence is different in individuals. Heredity governs or conditions our ability to learn and the rate of learning. The intelligent learners can constitute and see relationships very hands and more than quickly.
  2. Condition of students: Concrete and home conditions also matter: Certain bug similar malnutrition i.east.; inadequate supply of nutrients to the body, fatigue i.e.; tiredness, actual weakness, and bad health are great obstructers in learning. These are some of the physical atmospheric condition past which a pupil can get affected. Home is a identify where a family unit lives. If the dwelling house atmospheric condition are not proper, the pupil is affected seriously. Some of the domicile conditions are bad ventilation, unhygienic living, bad light, etc. These touch on the student and his or her rate of learning.[63] [64]
  3. Physical environment: The design, quality, and setting of a learning infinite, such every bit a school or classroom, can each be critical to the success of a learning environment. Size, configuration, comfort—fresh air, temperature, light, acoustics, article of furniture—can all affect a student's learning. The tools used by both instructors and students directly affect how data is conveyed, from the display and writing surfaces (blackboards, markerboards, tack surfaces) to digital technologies. For example, if a room is too crowded, stress levels rising, student attention is reduced, and article of furniture organisation is restricted. If furniture is incorrectly bundled, sightlines to the instructor or instructional material are express and the ability to suit the learning or lesson mode is restricted. Aesthetics can also play a role, for if student morale suffers, so does motivation to attend schoolhouse.[65] [66]

Internal factors [edit]

There are several internal factors that touch on learning.[67] [68] They are

  1. Goals or purposes: Each and everyone has a goal. A goal should be fix to each student according to the standard expected to him. A goal is an aim or desired result. There are two types of goals chosen immediate and distant goals. A goal that occurs or is washed at one time is called an immediate goal, and distant goals are those that take fourth dimension to achieve. Immediate goals should exist set before the young learner and distant goals for older learners. Goals should be specific and articulate, so that learners empathize.
  2. Motivational behavior: Motivation means to provide with a motive. Motivation learners should be motivated so that they stimulate themselves with interest. This beliefs arouses and regulates the student's internal energies.
  3. Involvement: This is a quality that arouses a feeling. It encourages a student to move over tasks further. During teaching, the instructor must raise interests among students for the best learning. Interest is apparent (clearly seen or understood) behavior.
  4. Attention: Attention means consideration. It is concentration or focusing of consciousness upon i object or an idea. If effective learning should take identify attention is essential. Instructors must secure the attention of the student.
  5. Drill or do: This method includes repeating the tasks "north" number of times like needs, phrases, principles, etc. This makes learning more constructive.
  6. Fatigue: More often than not there are three types of fatigue, i.eastward., muscular, sensory, and mental. Muscular and sensory fatigues are actual fatigue. Mental fatigue is in the central nervous system. The remedy is to change teaching methods, e.g., use audio-visual aids, etc.
  7. Aptitude: Aptitude is natural ability. It is a status in which an individual'due south ability to acquire certain skills, cognition through training.
  8. Attitude: It is a fashion of thinking. The attitude of the student must be tested to find out how much inclination he or she has for learning a subject area or topic.
  9. Emotional weather condition: Emotions are physiological states of being. Students who respond a question properly or give expert results should be praised. This encouragement increases their ability and helps them produce better results. Certain attitudes, such equally e'er finding fault in a student's answer or provoking or embarrassing the pupil in forepart of a class are counterproductive.
  10. Speed, Accuracy and memory: Speed is the rapidity of motility. Retention is the act of retaining. These iii elements depend upon aptitude, attitude, interest, attention, and motivation of the students.
  11. Learning activities: Learning depends upon the activities and experiences provided by the teacher, his concept of discipline, methods of teaching, and above all his overall personality.
  12. Testing: Various tests mensurate individual learner differences at the heart of constructive learning. Testing helps eliminate subjective elements of measuring pupil differences and performances.
  13. Guidance: Everyone needs guidance in some part or some time in life. Some need information technology constantly and some very rarely depending on the students' conditions. Minor learners demand more guidance. Guidance is a piece of communication to solve a problem. Guidance involves the fine art of helping boys and girls in various aspects of academics, improving vocational aspects like choosing careers and recreational aspects like choosing hobbies. Guidance covers the whole gamut of learners problems- learning also as non-learning.

Epigenetic factors [edit]

The underlying molecular footing of learning appears to be dynamic changes in gene expression occurring in brain neurons that are introduced by epigenetic mechanisms. Epigenetic regulation of gene expression involves, well-nigh notably, chemical modification of Dna or Deoxyribonucleic acid-associated histone proteins. These chemical modifications tin cause long-lasting changes in factor expression. Epigenetic mechanisms involved in learning include the methylation and demethylation of neuronal Dna every bit well as methylation, acetylation and deacetylation of neuronal histone proteins.

During learning, information processing in the brain involves induction of oxidative modification in neuronal DNA followed by the employment of DNA repair processes that innovate epigenetic alterations. In particular, the Deoxyribonucleic acid repair processes of non-homologous end joining and base excision repair are employed in learning and retention formation.[69] [70]

In brute evolution [edit]

Animals proceeds knowledge in two ways. First is learning—in which an beast gathers information most its environment and uses this information. For example, if an animal eats something that hurts its stomach, it learns non to eat that once again. The 2nd is innate knowledge that is genetically inherited. An case of this is when a horse is built-in and can immediately walk. The horse has non learned this beliefs; information technology just knows how to exercise information technology.[71] In some scenarios, innate knowledge is more beneficial than learned noesis. All the same, in other scenarios the opposite is truthful—animals must learn certain behaviors when it is disadvantageous to have a specific innate behavior. In these situations, learning evolves in the species.

Costs and benefits of learned and innate knowledge [edit]

In a changing environment, an animal must constantly gain new information to survive. Withal, in a stable environment, this same individual needs to get together the data it needs one time, and then rely on information technology for the rest of its life. Therefore, different scenarios better suit either learning or innate noesis. Essentially, the cost of obtaining certain noesis versus the benefit of already having information technology determines whether an animal evolved to larn in a given state of affairs, or whether information technology innately knew the information. If the cost of gaining the knowledge outweighs the do good of having it, so the animal does not evolve to learn in this scenario—but instead, not-learning evolves. Notwithstanding, if the benefit of having sure data outweighs the price of obtaining it, and then the creature is far more than likely to evolve to accept to larn this information.[71]

Non-learning is more than likely to evolve in 2 scenarios. If an environment is static and change does not or rarely occurs, and so learning is just unnecessary. Because there is no need for learning in this scenario—and because learning could prove disadvantageous due to the time it took to learn the information—not-learning evolves. Similarly, if an environment is in a constant state of change, learning is also disadvantageous, as anything learned is immediately irrelevant considering of the changing environment.[71] The learned information no longer applies. Substantially, the animal would be just equally successful if it took a guess as if it learned. In this situation, non-learning evolves. In fact, a study of Drosophila melanogaster showed that learning can actually lead to a decrease in productivity, perchance considering egg-laying behaviors and decisions were dumb by interference from the memories gained from the newly learned materials or because of the cost of energy in learning.[72]

Nonetheless, in environments where modify occurs inside an animal'southward lifetime but is not constant, learning is more likely to evolve. Learning is beneficial in these scenarios considering an animal can adapt to the new state of affairs, just can still utilise the cognition that information technology learns for a somewhat extended menses of fourth dimension. Therefore, learning increases the chances of success as opposed to guessing.[71] An example of this is seen in aquatic environments with landscapes discipline to change. In these environments, learning is favored because the fish are predisposed to learn the specific spatial cues where they alive.[73]

In plants [edit]

In contempo years, plant physiologists have examined the physiology of institute behavior and knowledge. The concepts of learning and memory are relevant in identifying how plants respond to external cues, a behavior necessary for survival. Monica Gagliano, an Australian professor of evolutionary ecology, makes an argument for associative learning in the garden pea, Pisum sativum. The garden pea is non specific to a region, but rather grows in cooler, higher altitude climates. Gagliano and colleagues' 2016 paper aims to differentiate between innate phototropism behavior and learned behaviors.[29] Plants use light cues in various ways, such as to sustain their metabolic needs and to maintain their internal circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms in plants are modulated past endogenous bioactive substances that encourage leaf-opening and leafage-endmost and are the basis of nyctinastic behaviors.[74]

Gagliano and colleagues synthetic a classical workout test in which pea seedlings were divided into two experimental categories and placed in Y-shaped tubes.[29] In a serial of grooming sessions, the plants were exposed to light coming downwards unlike arms of the tube. In each case, there was a fan bravado lightly downwardly the tube in either the same or contrary arm equally the light. The unconditioned stimulus (US) was the predicted occurrence of low-cal and the conditioned stimulus (CS) was the wind bravado by the fan. Previous experimentation shows that plants respond to light by bending and growing towards information technology through differential prison cell growth and sectionalisation on one side of the establish stem mediated past auxin signaling pathways.[75]

During the testing phase of Gagliano's experiment, the pea seedlings were placed in different Y-pipes and exposed to the fan lonely. Their management of growth was subsequently recorded. The 'correct' response by the seedlings was accounted to be growing into the arm where the light was "predicted" from the previous twenty-four hours.  The majority of plants in both experimental conditions grew in a management consequent with the predicted location of light based on the position of the fan the previous twenty-four hours.[29] For example, if the bulb was trained with the fan and light coming down the same arm of the Y-piping, the following twenty-four hours the bulb grew towards the fan in the absenteeism of light cues despite the fan being placed in the opposite side of the Y-arm. Plants in the control group showed no preference to a particular arm of the Y-pipe. The percentage difference in population behavior observed between the command and experimental groups is meant to distinguish innate phototropism behavior from active associative learning.[29]

While the physiological machinery of associative learning in plants is not known, Telewski et al. describes a hypothesis that describes photoreception as the basis of mechano-perception in plants.[76] Ane machinery for mechano-perception in plants relies on MS ion channels and calcium channels. Mechanosensory proteins in jail cell lipid bilayers, known as MS ion channels, are activated in one case they are physically deformed in response to pressure or tension. Ca2+ permeable ion channels are "stretch-gated" and allow for the influx of osmolytes and calcium, a well-known second messenger, into the cell. This ion influx triggers a passive flow of water into the cell downward its osmotic slope, effectively increasing turgor pressure and causing the cell to depolarize.[76] Gagliano hypothesizes that the ground of associative learning in Pisum sativum is the coupling of mechanosensory and photosensory pathways and is mediated by auxin signaling pathways. The event is directional growth to maximize a plant's capture of sunlight.[29]

Gagliano et al. published another paper on habituation behaviors in the mimosa pudica plant whereby the innate behavior of the plant was diminished by repeated exposure to a stimulus.[19] At that place has been controversy effectually this paper and more generally around the topic of plant cognition. Charles Abrahmson, a psychologist and behavioral biologist, says that part of the issue of why scientists disagree about whether plants have the ability to acquire is that researchers do not use a consistent definition of "learning" and "cognition".[77] Similarly, Michael Pollan, an author, and journalist, says in his slice The Intelligent Establish that researchers do not dubiousness Gagliano's information but rather her language, specifically her use of the term "learning" and "cognition" with respect to plants.[78] A direction for futurity inquiry is testing whether circadian rhythms in plants attune learning and behavior and surveying researchers' definitions of "noesis" and "learning."

Auto learning [edit]

Robots can learn to cooperate.

Machine learning, a co-operative of artificial intelligence, concerns the structure and written report of systems that tin learn from information. For instance, a machine learning system could be trained on e-mail letters to learn to distinguish between spam and non-spam messages. Virtually of the Machine Learning models are based on probabilistic theories where each input (e.g. an image ) is associated with a probability to become the desired output.

Types [edit]

Phases [edit]

See also [edit]

  • 21st century skills – Skills identified as being required for success in the 21st century
  • Anticipatory socialization
  • Epistemology – Branch of philosophy concerning noesis
  • Implicit learning
  • Instructional theory – Theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop
  • Learning sciences – Interdisciplinary field to farther scientific agreement of learning
  • Lifelong learning – Ongoing, voluntary, and self-motivated pursuit of knowledge
  • Living educational theory – Method in educational research
  • Media psychology
  • Subgoal labeling

Information theory [edit]

  • Algorithmic information theory
  • Algorithmic probability
  • Bayesian inference – Method of statistical inference
  • Inductive logic programming
  • Inductive probability – Determining the probability of future events based on past events
  • Information theory – Scientific report of digital information
  • Minimum description length
  • Minimum message length – Formal information theory restatement of Occam's Razor
  • Occam'southward razor – Philosophical principle of selecting the solution with the fewest assumptions
  • Solomonoff'due south theory of inductive inference
  • Universal artificial intelligence

Types of education [edit]

  • Andragogy
  • Heutagogy
  • Didactics – Theory and practice of instruction

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Notes [edit]

  • Mayer, R.Eastward. (2001). Multimedia learning . New York: Cambridge University Printing. ISBN978-0-521-78749-nine.
  • Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and exact processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. ISBN978-0-03-085173-v.

External links [edit]

  • How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Feel, and School (expanded edition) published by the National Academies Press
  • Applying Scientific discipline of Learning in Education: Infusing Psychological Scientific discipline into the Curriculum published by the American Psychological Association

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning

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